Life Tracks
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources - Bureau of Wildlife Management - June 1988 - PUBL-WM-013 88REV
The White-tailed Deer
(Odocoileus virginianus)
By Sherry Wise
Description
The white-tailed deer is Wisconsin's official state wildlife animal and North America's
most abundant big-game animal. Adult males are 71-85 inches long and weigh about 150
pounds, while females are 63-79 inches long and weigh about 100 pounds. Deer have
large, conspicuous ears, a naked nose pad and long legs and hooves which adapt them for
running. Their hairs are hollow in, winter to provide better insulation from cold.
Male deer have antlers which are normally shed in December or January and regrown
each year, beginning in Apri1 or May. Both sexes possess four sets of external glands
which secrete chemical scents called pheromones. These scents identify individual deer
and are used by deer to mark their territories.
Fawns are born spotted in late spring, but these spots disappear by October. Adult deer
are colored reddish tan in summer and medium gray in winter. Their underparts including
throat, stomach, and inner legs are white year-round. The tail is also white underneath
and is usually raised and flared when the deer is alarmed. Although both all-black
(melanistic) and all-white (albino) deer do occur, such cases are rare. A deer track is
about 2-3 inches in length with a space of about 20 inches occurring between the prints
when walking.
Reproduction
White-tailed deer usually become sexually mature during their second year, but females
on agricultural range frequently breed their first fall. The breeding season occurs from
late October to December when hormonal changes cause females to separate from their
families and males to set up breeding territories.
During the breeding season, or "rut", bucks mark out their territories with scrapes (pawed
up areas of ground) and rubs (areas on trees where the bark has been removed by antler
rubbing). They mate with several does within the territory, often using their antlers and
hooves to drive off opposing bucks.
After a gestation period of 196-201 days, does may seek a place near their own birthplace
to give birth. From one to three fawns may be born per doe depending on doe age,
nutrition and winter conditions. Fawns weigh 4-8 pounds at birth and have a
reddish-brown coat with spots. They move very little the first few weeks, relying on their
natural camouflage and nearly scentless condition to escape predators. During this time,
the doe returns frequently to nurse and groom them.
Fawns are weaned by 10 weeks and
remain with the doe until the breeding season starts. Their spotted coat is replaced in 4-5
months and they reach their maximum size in 3-5 years.
Food
The white-tailed deer is a browser and grazer, specially adapted to an herbivore lifestyle.
Deer have small, clipping lower incisors, and large, grinding molars. In addition, they are
able to select the most nutritious foods in their environment, with their diet varying
according to season.
In the absence of green foliage during late fall and winter, deer must browse on woody
twigs. The most nutritious winter foods include northern white cedar, red maple,
hemlock, mountain ash, and alternate-leaf dogwood. Deer also prefer acorns, beechnuts
and fruits when available.
Following the snowmelt, deer feed on herbaceous materials like grasses and sedges.
Their late spring and summer diet consists of tree leaves, especially aspen, broad-leaved
herbs and berries. During the fall, deer seek acorns and
grab again on grasses and herbs until snow makes these foods unavailable.
In agricultural areas, white-tailed deer feed on crops throughout the year, but they
especially prefer corn in the winter and wheat and alfalfa fields in the spring. Deer also
occasionally browse on orchard trees and ornamental shrubs in suburban areas.
Habits and Habitat
The home range of the white-tailed deer is usually less than one square mile. Males
generally have larger ranges which are expanded during the rut. Good deer habitat is
characterized by forested areas with some young, brushy stands and scattered openings,
or agricultural areas with a combination of crop fields. woodlots, and wetlands. Areas
which contain a lot of early succession vegetation are especially good for deer in forested
areas.
Territorial behavior in deer is seasonal. Bucks become quite territorial during the
breeding season. Generally, does during the fawning season are intolerant of other
females except within their families. Deer are most social in winter when they often form
groups in deer yards.
Deer are crepuscular, being most active in early morning and evening. In forested areas,
they may, depending on snow depth, migrate to traditional winter yards in December or
January and stay there until March. These yards are generally areas with conifer cover
and/or south-facing slopes which provide warmth and tend to accumulate less snow.
Stands of northern white cedar are especially preferred for yarding because they provide
cover and the greatest interception of snow.
Planned harvest of deer in forested areas seeks to prevent the herd from approaching or
exceeding carrying capacity. In these areas, hunting replaces the natural mortality that
would occur because of malnutrition, disease or predation. In agricultural areas, hunting
and deer-vehicle collisions are the primary mortality factors. The population rebounds
because of the deer's polygamous breeding habits, average litter size, and the ability of
young animals to breed.
Wisconsin deer are susceptible to a variety of diseases and
parasites. Most common among these are the meningeal worm, ticks, deer lice, and
fibroma. The giant liver fluke, a common parasite in deer, was probably the cause of
decline in the sheep industry in northern Wisconsin. While deer can tolerate several adult
flukes, as few as one may kill a sheep. None of these diseases, however, affect human use
of venison. cooked venison.
Natural predators are no longer a serious threat to deer. Few wolves exist in the forested
north. Coyotes, bear, red fox, and bobcats may occasionally kill a fawn or adult, but
most deer mortality results from hunting, malnutrition and accidents.
History in Wisconsin
In the days of the early explorers, white-tailed deer were common throughout Wisconsin,
but more abundant in the southern part of the state. Deer were always economically
important in the state beginning with the Indians. Area tribes not only used the venison
for food, but also utilized deer hides, hooves, and antlers for ornamentation, shelter, and
clothing.
Today, Wisconsin's deer are still economically very important. During the 1980's, some
650,000 hunters spent $9 million annually on hunting licenses and millions more on
food, lodging, transportation, and hunting equipment. Numbers of hunters continue to
rise as the state deer herd has undergone drastic population increases. From 1955 to
1985, for instance, the herd climbed from 400,000 to 1,000,000 animals - an increase of
250%.
Current Status in Wisconsin
White-tailed deer occur throughout Wisconsin with the current deer population
numbering 1,000,000. Over 450,000 deer live in the northern and central forests, while
less than 10,000 inhabit the south eastern counties surrounding the Milwaukee
metropolitan area. The remaining herd is fairly evenly spread throughout the agricultural
areas and along Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River.
Management
Wisconsin's deer management program uses a system of about 100 deer management
units, which vary in size from small areas to large tracts of land within several counties.
Each of these units has a formally established deer population goal. Population trends
are determined primarily by using harvest numbers, and sex-age data. Age data is
obtained by examining tooth wear and replacement patterns on harvested deer.
Populations are determined by a formula which uses harvest figures for bucks and does
and age information. These figures help biologists make comparisons from one year to
the next.
Deer herd abundance relative to population goals determines the nature of annual hunting
seasons, including the use of buck or either-sex seasons and hunter's choice/antlerless
permits. Harvest of adult bucks is legal statewide, and the harvest of antlerless deer is
regulated. All recommendations for antlerless harvests are reviewed at public hearings
and by the Conservation Congress, a statewide sportsmen's group. These
recommendations are then considered by the Natural Resources Board in establishing the
final quotas.
The gun season is nine days in late November over much of the state. Recent annual gun harvests average over 200,000 deer. The 85-day bow season occurs before and after the gun season and adds up to 40,000 deer to the annual harvest. One deer of either sex can be taken, in addition to deer taken during the gun season. All harvested deer must be registered and tagged at an official station. These stations are
located statewide in DNR offices, gas stations, stores, sheriff's offices. and other public
buildings.
Besides regulation of harvest, other techniques can be used to increase deer
herd density. Techniques like prescribed burning, creation of forest openings, thinning
and cutting operations can be used to improve deer habitat. Private landowners, in
particular, should be aware of this possible benefit of forest management and consult
their local DNR forester or wildlife manager for assistance.
Present management goals
are designed to "maintain a deer herd in balance with its range and at population levels
reasonably compatible with agriculture and forest management objectives." Population
goals vary according to range carrying capacity and human tolerance.
In addition to
hunting, many recreational opportunities exist for those who wish to watch and
photograph white-tailed deer. Deer are especially visible in agriculture fields, roadsides
and forest openings during spring
How to tell the age of deer.
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